When a train passes over track, the rail has to do two things at the same time. It transfers vertical load down into the sleeper and ballast and also forces along its length — from temperature change, traction and braking. Those forces do not stop at the end of a rail. They must pass through whatever joins one rail length to the next. Every time two rails are joined, it creates an area where the behaviour of the track changes. These joins affect: How forces are transferred Ho

Ballast is a vital component of railway track infrastructure, providing stability, drainage, and support for sleepers. But while the...